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The Evolution of Altruism The Beatification of Franz Jagerstatter may be considered an acknowledgment of the legitimacy of conscientious objection and a recognition of a modern form of martyrdom. Is taking a heroic stand, putting one’s life on the line, so rare that it is practically unique? Or is it a widespread capacity which in fact is becoming more characteristic of human beings? In other words, where does altruism come from and where is it going? The first single-celled organisms survived by taking advantage of some inorganic chemical reactions and reproduced by simply splitting. They were the ultimate self-centered creatures, and they knew not death. With the evolution of green plants, able to carry out photosynthesis whereby they converted solar energy into plant tissue and stored carbohydrates, there began to be competition for a place in the sun. As plants became more complex, they devised ways to beat out their neighbors, growing taller, spreading out, developing broader leaves, looking out only for themselves. With the advent of animals, from the simplest to the most complex, there was a big jump in efficiency. Animals learned to eat plants, and later other animals, thus bypassing the need to convert sunlight into energy. They simply took advantage of what the plants were able to do; they used plants as food. Thus was established the fundamental symbiotic relationship which is the foundation of the energy exchange of all life on earth. Plants need carbon dioxide and sunlight; their waste products are oxygen and water. Animals need oxygen; their waste product is carbon dioxide. Each biological kingdom produces what the other needs. As animals became more complex, the competition for food became more keen. Nature is here seen as red in tooth and claw, and survival is the name of the game. Cooperation does not help. Supposing among a population of chimpanzees there were some who tended to keep food entirely to themselves and others who tended to share with siblings, perhaps with other chimps, possibly even with non-chimpanzees. The principle of natural selection would clearly favor the former. In other words, altruism is maladapted for survival. What is the situation with human beings? Biologically, it is the same. Let all compete and may the fittest survive. It is not merely food which is at stake, but living space, natural resources, power and wealth. The neo-Darwinians even today decry the pampering of the weak and unfit, the dilution of the human genetic stock. Adam Smith has taught us that economic affairs are governed by the “hidden hand,” whereby each participant in the marketplace, seeking always his own personal gain, contributes to the efficient working of a system that brings the greatest good to the greatest number. In other words, selfishness is virtue. Alongside this development toward self-centeredness, there was also developing a process fostering cooperation. Beginning with single-celled organisms, there was a tendency for some to form clusters, with different cells then becoming specialized and cooperating for the good of the whole. Later these colonies evolved into complex organisms with specialized organs. Among higher animals, behavioral cooperation developed as well. Family groups shared within themselves, the family unit thereby being better able to survive than isolated individuals. More widespread cooperation also began to develop. Crows, for example have been reported to cooperate in wresting food from a dog. Two crows will harass the dog so that it will drop its morsel, a third crow then snatching it up. In all these instances of cooperation, however, it remains a matter of competition, our group against the others. Survival above all. With human beings, cooperation is widespread, within families, then within tribes, then within nation states. As with lower animals, however, the cooperation is largely a matter of competition with other groups. On the other hand, there appears to be a basic instinct for altruism in human beings. It frequently happens that a person, perhaps considering himself as timid and fearful, encounters, for example, a drowning child. Were he to ponder the matter rationally, he probably would not risk his life to save the child; survival is too strong an instinct and compassion too weak to place himself in danger. Yet, without thinking, he will plunge in and exert every effort to the rescue. There seems to be, then, a basic instinct toward altruism within our biological makeup, even if in our rationality we seem not to act on it. The heroic altruism of Franz Jagerstatter may be something which, although exhibited to a remarkable degree in his martyrdom, is potentially present in any and all of us. What, then, are the chances that we human beings will further develop our altruism in the future? Teilhard emphasizes that for human beings the path of evolution has shifted from biology and genetics to culture. The direction of this evolution is clear enough. For human societies, self-centeredness, competition, and aggression are no longer functional; they will be replaced by altruism and cooperation. The 14-billion-year history of the evolution of our universe has brought us to this point, and it will not turn back. In some ways, it seems foolishness to believe that we will stop the endless wars, that we will achieve an era of peace and justice. It seems so difficult to change the structure of our societies, our economic systems, our rape of nature. We become discouraged as the creative solutions to our problems spawn new problems of their own. But Teilhard is clear: the revolution will come as a result of higher consciousness. Peace begins within ourselves. Of course, we will continue to march, to leaflet, to simplify our lifestyles, to speak justice to power. But we must also look within our own hearts, with prayer, with meditation, with joy and with hope. As compassion grows within any one of us, it sends out a ripple and affects others. The ripples reinforce one another and they spread, silent and invisible. But they foreshadow the coming of the Kingdom. And the Kingdom will come. Dom Roberti |